1912

After the Anglo-Boer, the South African Act of Union is passed in 1910. The Act denies political rights to the black population, other than those rights already granted to a small number of blacks in the former Cape Colony. A welter of legislative measures are promulgated, designed to control freedom of movement (pass laws), and to force black people to work as labourers (poll taxes) in the white-owned economy, particularly in the burgeoning gold and diamond mines.

In response African intellectual leaders come together on January 8 in Bloemfontein and elect John Langalibalele Dube President of the South African Native National Congress. The two men most involved in bringing this to fruition, Solomon Plaatje and Pixley ka Isaka Seme are elected Secretary-General and Treasurer-General respectively. (The organisation changed its name in 1923 to the African National Congress.)

1913

The Native Land Act is passed under which the white population of one and half million is allotted 87% of the land of South Africa while the remaining 13% is put in trust for the use of the black population of five and half million in the designated ‘Reserves’.

In July moves to extend the pass laws to include women are met with determined resistance. Six hundred women march to the municipal offices in Bloemfontein and deposit a bag containing their passes. They politely inform the Deputy Mayor that they will no longer buy or carry passes. In Winburg, Charlotte Maxeke, one of the organisers and spokeswomen of the anti-pass campaign, is arrested with 800 women on a march to the town hall, singing hymns. They refuse to pay their fines and say they will never carry a pass.

1915

Foundation of the International Socialist League (ISL), a break-away section of the Labour Party. They are anti-war and campaigners for equal rights for all irrespective of colour or class.

December 21Â :Â Strike of 2800 black miners at Van Rhyn Deep mines

1916

Native Life in South Africa by Solomon Plaatje is published A devastating critique of the Land Act, it remains a rare classic used by scholars, researchers, students. He wrote

"Awakening on Friday morning, June 20,1913, the South African native found himself…a pariah in the land of his birth."

Fort Hare University founded as South African Native College

1917

First industrial African trade union is formed – the Industrial Workers of Africa (IWA), by the International Socialist League in Johannesburg

1918

Women’s struggle against the extension of the pass laws succeeds, and the State ceased temporarily in its efforts to force passes on women. Charlotte Maxeke a prominent leader of the campaigns founded the Bantu Women’s League and was elected president.

The Bucket Strike: Sanitary workers in Johannesburg demand a six pence rise. 152 strikers are sentenced to two months hard labour under the Masters and Servants Act. The ANC launches a successful campaign for their release and an increase of one shilling a day.

1919

70,000 African miners strike. The well-organised and disciplined strike alarms the government. Troops with bayonets break through barricades killing three and wounding 40 strikers. Police and armed whites attack a solidarity meeting, killing 8 and wounding 80.

In January the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU)is formed in Cape Town soon to take off across the country and to become the largest black union ever existing in South Africa, known as 'ICU White Man!' (Meli, 1988 p 63)

1921

The Bulhoek Massacre occurs near Queenstown. 163 members of the Israelite sect are killed by a 719 man police-force, armed with a machine gun and artillery, led by Police Commissioner Truter. A further 129 are wounded and 113 are taken prisoner. One policemen is wounded in the stomach and a police horse is killed. The sect were forced to leave the land they regarded as that of their prophet Enoch Mgijima.

The Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) is formed on 30 July.

1922

White miners strike to prevent Chamber of Mines opening semi-skilled and skilled jobs to African miners. The white mineworkers shut down the mines for two months and the strike is only ended by full-scale military action ordered by Prime Minister J.C. Smuts. Though the strike is beaten, white workers win their demand for a white labour policy.

1923

SANNC changes its name to African National Congress

1927

ANC President J. T. Gumede goes to the Anti-Imperialist Conference in Brussels with J. A. La Guma and D. Coltraine. In Brussels they meet humanists and freedom fighters from Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and the West. Gumede takes the opportunity of visiting the Soviet Union where he is impressed with the peasants of Georgia. He returns to South Africa more sympathetic to the ideas of communism saying "I have been to the new Jerusalem" His discussions in the Soviet Union were instrumental in the formulation of the ‘Black Republic’ resolution which split the CPSA.

1930/1931

The ANC works closely with the CPSA against Minister of Justice Pirow (a self-proclaimed Nazi) who wants to amend the Riotous Assemblies Act to give him the power to banish militants without trial.

The ANC and CPSA also prepare for a conference to fight the Hertzog Bills which sought to remove Africans from the Cape voter’s roll. At the same time they begin to organise a mass anti-pass campaign

In Durban the young communist Johannes Nkosi leads a successful pass burning. He is brutally killed by the police there.

1935

National Liberation League for Equality, Land and Freedom launched. Zaibunisa Cissy Gool is President and Jimmy La Guma General Secretary. (Ms Gool was later a member of the Cape Town City Council). The League wants unity in the face of white minority power.

1936

AAC (All-African National Convention) meeting of 400 delegates in Bloemfontein to oppose the Hertzog Bills to remove qualified Africans from the voter’s roll. Despite widespread opposition the Act is passed

1937

Launch of the Cape Guardian newspaper, supporter of ANC and CPSA.

ANC Conference in Bloemfontein, issues statement demanding full democratic and citizenship rights before advising Africans to participate in Second World War.

1939

Council for Non-European Trade Unions founded with Gana Makabeni as President and D. Gosani Secretary.

Dr. Alfred B. Xuma is elected President of the ANC and Constitution is written. Dr. Xuma issues policy statement in Inkululeko calling for unity of the African people.

Closer cooperation forged between the ANC and the CPSA.

1943

The ANC Women’s League (WL) is formed. Charlotte Maxeke is elected President, Ida Mntwana and Mrs Xuma officers. Their work centres on the anti-pass campaigns. "Women will never accept the pass." The WL is not autonomous, but subject to the decisions of the ANC

1944

The ANC Youth League is formed, headed by Anton Lembede, Nelson Mandela, O. R. Tambo, Walter Sisulu, A. P. Mda inter alia. Many of the leaders are Fort Hare students. They issue a Programme of Action which includes the right to self-determination. 1945
At ANC National Conference in December, African Claims in South Africa is presented, demanding equal rights for black soldiers returned from the war and war pensions for widows. These demands are refused. Anti-pass campaign is relaunched 1946
In June the Indian Passive Resistance Campaign fully supported by the ANC is led by Y. M. Dadoo and Dr. G. M. Naicker against the Asiatic Land Tenure and Indian Representation Act (known as the Ghetto Act) of the Smuts Government.

In August 100,000 African mineworkers go on strike on the Rand goldfields. Police sanctioned by the Smuts government open fire and charge with drawn bayonets. Hundreds of workers are killed and injured. Moses Kotane, J. B. Marks, Yusuf Dadoo, Brian Bunting, Bram Fischer and 46 others are accused of conspiracy to cause the strike.

1947
Congress Alliance forged in March. Pact signed by Xuma, Naicker and Dadoo for ANC, Natal and Transvaal Indian Congresses. 1948
Nationalist Party comes to power entrenching white minority domination with a strong Afrikaner bias. Apartheid is instituionalised with a spate of discriminatory laws. 1949
ANC Conference adopts Youth League inspired Programme of Action. President Dr. Moroko and Secretary Walter Sisulu elected to implement plan 1950
At Witzieshoek peasants rebel against enforced cattle culling and the starvation caused by land shortage. Police kill protesters.

May Day call by ANC for general stay-at-home demanding Votes for All and end to discrimination. Strike successful in Johannesburg but in evening police come shooting. 18 dead, 30 wounded.

June 26 declared a national day of mourning by the ANC for those killed on May Day. Observed annually as Freedom Day.

Unlawful Organisations Bill to ban CP and Suppression of Communism Act passed to allow Minister of Justice powers to restrict persons, organisations, newspapers etc. CP dissolved before Act is passed.

1951
Legislation passed to change Constitution and remove Coloured people of the Cape from the voters’ roll. Large scale protest meetings held.

Black Sash formed - a group of white women against Constitution change stand outside parliament wearing black sashes. The group develops into an effective organisation, with advice offices nationally.

1952
June 26Â :Â ANC, Indian Congress and supporters launch nationwide Defiance of Unjust Laws Campaign in which volunteers seek arrest for breaking "Europeans Only" type restrictions.

In July Walter Sisulu, Duma Nokwe among others visit Europe, USSR and China without passports

In September SACPO (S.A. Coloured Peoples Organisation) later Coloured Peoples’ Congress formed. James La Guma elected President.

In October the Congress of Democrats, white members of the Congress movement formed.

The December Conference of the ANC decides to organise a Congress of the People. A call will go out to everyone to send in demands for a better life to be embodied in the Freedom Charter.

At the conference, Chief A. J. Lutuli is elected President-General of the ANC with Nelson Mandela as Deputy President.

1954
Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) formed on 17 April. Ida Mntwana is President and Ray Alexander elected National Secretary. Later Lilian Ngoyi became President.

Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act which is designed to break the black trade union movement is passed. 38 striking Durban workers are charged.

1955
60,000 People in Johannesburg Western Areas, including Sophiatown, removed at gun-point from their homes under Group Areas Act. Area declared "white" and renamed "Triomf"

SACTU (South African Congress of Trade Unions) formed on 5 March – first non-racial trade union organisation.

April – ANC launches boycott of Bantu Education in attempt to organise alternative education system.

June 26 – Congress of the People. At Kliptown Johannesburg 3000 delegates from all corners of the country gather beneath four-spoked wheel – symbol of the Congress Movement. Each section of the Freedom Charter discussed. Armed police arrive. Interrogate and search delegates while Congress carries on.

1956
August 9 : 20,000 women march to Pretoria protesting against the pass laws. Lay thousands of petitions at door of Prime Minister Strydom chanting ‘Wathint’abafazi, wathint’ imbokodo, Uzakufa’. You have struck a rock, dislodged a boulder you will be crushed.’ Lilian Ngoyi, Helen Joseph, Sophie Williams and Rahima Moosa led the march symbolising the unity of South African women.

December 5 – 156 arrests for High Treason. Congress members from around South Africa taken to the Fort Prison in Johannesburg. The trial lasts 4 years when all are acquitted. ‘The South African Treason Trial’ written while still on trial, by Lionel Forman, with Solly Sachs in London. Published in 1957 in England with reviews world-wide. Treason Trial Defence Fund inaugurated, later to become International Defence and Aid Fund

1957
Alexandra Township Bus Boycott as result of increase in bus fares. Thousands of residents walk 20km to work and back.

Pound-a-Day national minimum wage campaign launched as result of Alexandra boycott.

Women’s anti-pass demonstrations all year throughout the country. Mass anti-pass demonstration in Johannesburg,

The women in Zeerust are particularly militant and burn their passes as a result of the deposing of their chief Mailoa who supports them. Widespread unrest results. People shot, beaten and their homes burned to the ground by police.

Women protest against beerhall system. Law prevents home brewing but allow municipal beerhalls which provide the major source of revenue for township administration.

1958
May : A revolt against Bantustans in Sekhukhuniland leads to the execution of 16 peasants and brutal state repression in Pondoland, Tembuland, and Zululand.

The Farm Labour Scandal receives wide publicity after first appearing in New Age. Ruth First and Joe Gqabi conduct under-cover investigation into kidnapping and enslaving of workers on farms. Leads to successful potato boycott nation-wide

A fire bomb in the New Age newspaper office destroyed filing cabinets with records of many years information

1960
January : A calamity in the mines occurs when 440 miners are entombed at Clydesdale colliery, Coalbrook as the mine collapses over them and they cannot escape.

February : The people of Pondoland rise up against the imposition of Bantustans.

March 21Â - The PAC (Pan-African Congress) newly formed in 1959 by a break-away group led by Robert Sobukwe, holds anti-pass demonstration in Sharpeville, near Vereeniging. The police open fire and shoot people fleeing. 69 are killed and hundreds injured. The news is spread world-wide. The ANC calls for a nation-wide stay-at-home.

March 30Â - A State of Emergency is declared and over 2000 people are arrested.

Under the Unlawful Organisations Act the ANC and PAC are banned

14 July the SACP announces it is functioning underground (having dissolved itself in 1950)

1961
March : The Treason Trial ends with the acquittal of all accused. Helen Joseph writes If this be Treason, (sequel to The South African Treason Trial), published in England.

May 31Â :Â Nation-wide strike called against establishment of Republic of South Africa.

June 26Â :Â Mandela states he will remain underground to lead the struggle.

December 11Â :Â Chief Albert Lutuli, ANC President is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize

December 16 : a State holiday to mark Dingaan’s Day is chosen for formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) the armed wing of the ANC. Dingaan was the Zulu King who in 1838, was defeated by a Boer force at the battle on the Ngome River (known after the battle to S.A. whites as 'Blood River').

1962
Mandela leaves S.A. secretly to attend Pan African Freedom Movement meeting in Addis Ababa. He receives military training and returns to clandestine work in South Africa.

Congress of Democrats banned under Suppression of Communism Act.

1963
January : Many people banned. The State kept a list of known members of the CPSA and all those listed were banned.

July : Leadership of the ANC found meeting in a farm in Rivonia and tried in the ‘Rivonia Trial’.

'Looksmart' Ngudle and Suliman 'Babla' Saloojee are tortured and killed in detention. Said to have 'fallen' from the 10th floor window of security building in Johannesburg

1964
Friday 12 June : Mandela, G. Mbeki, Sisulu, Mhlaba, Mlangeni, Motsoaledi, Kathrada and Goldberg are sentenced to life imprisonment. All (except Goldberg) sent to Robben Island where they remained for 26 years.

September : Bram Fischer arrested and charged under Suppression of Communism Act.

November 6Â :Â three SACTU leaders, Vuyisile Mini, Wilson Khayingo and Zinakile Mkhaba sentenced to death and executed based on the false evidence of Kholisile Mdwayi.

John Harris sentenced to death, November, for bomb on Johannesburg station on 24 July, which killed a white woman

1966
Bram Fischer sentenced to life imprisonment

District Six is declared a 'white' group area. Forced removal begins for 55,000 residents

September : Prime Minister Verwoerd assassinated in Parliament by Dimitri Tsafendis. B. J. Vorster succeeds as Prime Minister

1967
July 21Â :Â Chief Albert Lutuli killed by a train near his home in "highly suspicious circumstances"

Basil D'Oliviera, a black cricketer from Cape Town, now a cricket star in England is chosen to play for England by the MCC.

1968
South African cricket in crisis after Prime Minister Vorster refuses to allow D'Oliviera into South Africa to play. MCC cancel tour

Beach apartheid promulgated throughout the Cape. Notices erected on all beaches on coastline

1969
April 25Â :Â Landmark ANC Conference held in Morogoro Tanzania. ANC opened to non-African membership.

July : SASO (South African Students’ Organisation) inaugurated at Turfloop University. Steve Biko elected president.

Anti-apartheid demonstrations across UK rock rugby tour of Springboks

1970
October : Ahmed Timol dies in detention. The police say he "fell out of the 10^th floor window". Before Timol some 22 people had met their death in detention for reasons including "suicide by hanging"

In Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban, ANC pamphlet bombs are scattered through the cities at rush hour.

1973
Women textile workers in Howick, Natal lead a successful strike which is followed by other strikes in the area. Negotiations follow (but no women are included at the negotiation table)

Strikes in all major centres. Springs, African miners' wages below poverty datum line. Durban 30,000 workers in 30 firms on strike. Johannesburg 27-day-go-slow of bus workers. 'Explosion of unrest' in East London.

Athol Fugard play Sizwe Banzi is Dead is banned before it is about to begin for Coloured audience. Apartheid regulations prevent Africans from performing for such an audience without a permit.

1974
City Councils of Cape Town, Johannesburg, Durban and Pietermaritzburg pledge to remove petty apartheid as far as law allows. Cape Town electricity department took down apartheid signs, Johannesburg to examine bylaws which 'offend dignity of individuals'. Nico Malan Theatre opened to all races, a few hotels opened a few doors. Discrimination remains.

December : United Nations Security Council demand that South Africa give up administration of South West Africa (Namibia)

1975
May 8Â :Â Bram Fischer dies. He was released from prison a few days previously. The prison refuse to allow the family to have his ashes.

June 25Â :Â Mozambique gains independence from Portugal after a long, bitter war and 500 years of Portuguese rule.

November 11Â :Â Angolan independence from Portugal at the same time that South African army invade the country.

1976
June 16 : Soweto school students’ massacre. The pupils of all the schools in Soweto demonstrate peacefully against the use of Afrikaans as the means of instruction and are shot down by police in caspirs and tanks. Over 1,000 children are killed, many more injured and in a few weeks there are 10,000 children imprisoned. Resistance spreads to schools and colleges throughout the country. It is a turning point in the struggle against apartheid.

Photograph of Hector Peterson fatally wounded, being carried away by Mbuyisa Makhubu and Hector's sister is published in The World and publicised world-wide, becomes an icon of the slaughter of children in Soweto on June 16, 1976

September 12Â :Â Steve Biko killed in detention. His mutilated body defies police reports that he hit his head accidentally. News of his brutal death is broadcast world-wide.

October : 17 organisations banned including newspapers in widespread repression drive in reaction to Soweto uprising.

Transkei given 'independence'. Kaiser Matanzima is first Bantustan President.

1977
15000 attend burial of Steve Biko in King William's Town where Bishop Tutu conducts the Requiem Mass. The Minister of Justice states that the inquest into Biko's death will be the only judicial enquiry. An outcry both within and outside the country ensues.

Throughout the Eastern Cape and around East London shacks are burnt and fleeing squatters arrested. EC Administration Board Director Swanepoel says raids will continue until East London is 'entirely cleared out.'

Percy Qoboza, editor of The World is detained and both The World and Weekend World are banned. 18 organisations are declared unlawful, seven prominent anti-apartheid campaigners are banned and about 70 people are detained in pre-dawn raids.

Bophuthatswana declared 'independent' and Chief Lucas Mangope joins Matanzima as a Bantustan President.

1979
April 6Â :Â Solomon Mahlangu hanged in Pretoria despite an international campaign for clemency. The Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College, (SOMAFCO) an ANC school in Tanzania is named after him. (The records of the school form part of the official archives of the ANC. When the school closed in 1992, these were transported directly to the University of Fort Hare.)

Centenary of Battle of Isandlwana on January 22, 1879. Marked as Year of the Spear.

May 1Â :Â Rhodesia becomes Zimbabwe-Rhodesia as white minority rule ends and caretaker government installed under Muzorewa

1980
January : the Silverton Siege. ANC soldiers take refuge in a bank in Silverton, Pretoria, take hostages and demand release of Mandela. Police storm bank killing some hostages and three MK soldiers

March : The Sunday Post launches campaign for release of Mandela and all political prisoners. 15 million people sign the petition world-wide.

March 13 : death of Lilian Ngoyi, President of ANC Womens League, renowned activist who led women’s march to Pretoria on August 9, 1956

April 18Â :Â Robert Mugabe takes over as President of Zimbabwe

June 1Â :Â Sasol complex in flames fired by Umkhonto we Sizwe. Dramatic victory of MK causes R66 million damage.

June 26Â :Â ANC in exile awards the Isitwalandwe Seaparankoe to Govan Mbeki and to Bishop Ambrose Reeves. The award is a traditional honour to those whom the ANC considers most worthy.

1981
Maputo cross-border raid by S.A. army. 12 ANC members are assassinated.

February 14Â :Â in response to raid Samora Machel declares Mozambican solidarity with anti-apartheid struggle.

June : nationwide boycott of the white republic marking the 5^th anniversary of Soweto uprising.

Mass detentions and bannings, roadblocks; police and soldiers seal off townships. Mk blow up railway lines

Joe Gqabi, ANC journalist shot dead in a street in Zimbabwe

1982
Maseru raid. Cross-border raid into Lesotho by SA soldiers killing 42 people, mostly Lesotho residents.

MK attack on Koeberg nuclear power plant, Cape Town

August 17Â :Â Letter bomb kills Ruth First in her Maputo office

1983
In Natal Zulu impis kill students on Nogoye University campus for showing "disrespect" to Gatsha Buthelezi.

MK car bomb explodes killing SADF and SAP personnel in Pretoria.

June 28Â :Â Lubango Angola, Jeanette Schoon (36) and Katryn her six-year-old daughter killed by a parcel bomb in their house.

SA army raid on Gaberone, Botswana, killing ANC personnel.

Bomb in Airforce HQ in Pretoria

June : United Democratic Front formed in Cape Town

1984
Nkomati Peace Accord for Mozambique signed by P. W. Botha and Samora Machel

Bishop Tutu awarded Nobel Peace Prize

SADF invade Sebokeng Township. Results in nationwide stay-away and protests.

COSAS (Congress of SA Students) involved in massive school boycotts in townships throughout the country. The boycotts continue into 1985.

1985
State of Emergency declared

SADF raid Lesotho once again. Leads to fall of the Lesotho Prime Minister, Jonathan Lebua

COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions) formed

ANC Consultative Conference held in Zambia

MK bomb attack in Amanzimtoti.

Mathew Goniwe, Fort Calata, Sparrow Mkhonto and Sicelo Mhlawuli, (known as the 'Cradock Four') active members of the Cradock Residents Association (CRA) and of the United Democratic Front (UDF) are found murdered and their bodies mutilated near Port Elizabeth at the end of June. Goniwe is well-known and popular. A former Robben Island prisoner, Acting Headmaster and Chair of the CRA he was hounded by the police. Evidence at his inquest showed that General CP van der Westhuizen, a Military Chief of Staff had signed the death warrant of the four men.

1986
Andrew Zondo, responsible for Amanzimtoti bomb, executed by hanging.

June : National Emergency declared. Lasts until 1990, during which time over 30,000 people, including children, are detained.

1987
Highest number of strikes recorded in one year. COSATU involved in organising strike of 300,00 mineworkers

July 12Â :Â Dakar (Senegal) Conference organised by IDASA (Institute for a Democratic Alternative for South Africa) attended by 61 prominent South Africans, most Afrikaans-speaking and 17 ANC delegates to create fundamental change and national unity in South Africa. It was still illegal for South African citizens to meet with the ANC, so there was a risk of State action against them on their return.

Cuito Cuanavale, Angola: South African army moves into Angola to prevent threat to rebel UNITA movement and pursues Angolan troops into Cuito Cuanavale.

1988
Cuito Cuanavale: The South Africans, with UNITA, expect to take the town and destroy a large part of the Angolan forces. Recognising the threat Cuba moves a large force into Cuito Cuanavale and saves the Angolans from defeat. The Cubans then march 10,000 troops South to a few miles from the Namibian border. As a result of this encounter the way is opened for talks on withdrawal of troops and Namibian independence. The talks involve Angola, South Africa, USSR, Cuba and USA.

February : SADF soldiers suppress an attempted coup by members of Bophuthatswana army.

Dulcie September, Chief Representative at the ANC's French Mission in Paris assassinated outside her office.

Inkatha forges military connections with KwaZulu government and SA Police. Bitter war against ANC, UDF and Natal communities ensues. Two UDF youth abducted and killed by Inkatha impis on way back from funeral. Violence begins to spread to Transvaal and other provinces. Thokoza becomes an area of intense fighting and KwaZulu is a ceaseless battleground.

Despite the violence secret talks continue between the ANC and government representatives.

1989
August 14Â :Â PW Botha resigns as President of South Africa. FW de Klerk takes his place.

ANC participates in a number of international conferences on future of the country: OAU, Commonwealth Heads of Government, UN General Assembly

Violence escalates while ANC and government representatives continue secret talks behind closed doors. Security Force involvement in perpetration of violence suspected.

ANC drafts Bill of Rights and Constitutional guidelines. Mandela moved to Pollsmoor.

October : first group of prisoners on Robben Island released.

1990
February 2Â : Â ANC, SACP, PAC, COSATU and other political organisations unbanned.

February 11Â :Â Mandela released. Thousands upon thousands wait in the streets of Cape Town to greet him

ANC and de Klerk Government agree to negotiate future of South Africa

Malibongwe Women’s Conference held in Amsterdam. 100 women, many of whom were members of the ANC Women's League in South Africa, funded by Dutch Anti-Apartheid Movement are permitted to travel out of the country for the first time.

1991
April : First National Conference of ANC Women’s League held in Kimberley. 1000 delegates from every corner of South Africa attend. Mandela comes to close the Conference.

July : First ANC National Conference elects Mandela President and O. R. Tambo National Chairman.

Three and half million workers strike demanding change of VAT

Nationwide demonstrations demanding release of all political prisoners

Groote Schuur and Pretoria Minutes resulting from meetings with government. Decision to stop actions of MK and to start negotiations to establish interim government.

1992
Following the Referendum in which whites vote to end Apartheid with a national election, when all adult South Africans will vote, CODESA (Convention for a Democratic South Africa) working groups set up.

Negotiations for a Government of National Unity begin.

Violence continues to escalate. Existence of a Third Force identified by investigative journalists.The force includes sections of the police, military and Inkatha.

1993
April, Chris Hani, Chairman of the SACP is assassinated outside his house in front of his child. Hani is highly valued by the ANC. A key negotiator, he was regarded as a potential successor to Mandela.

Codesa talks hit snags but continue and agree election date. The Sunset Clause gives current civil servants the right to keep their jobs until the next election. Joe Slovo is said to be the author of the clause.

Nelson Mandela and FW de Klerk awarded Nobel Peace Prize

1994
April 27Â :Â The first nationwide democratic election in which all adults in the country are eligible to vote takes place. The world watches as all South Africans go to the polls in peace.

References:

African National Congress:Â Unity in Action, A Photographic History of the ANC, 1912-1982. London, (1982)

BDAF & ILEA:Â The Child is Not Dead, Youth Resistance in South Africa, 1976-1986. London, (1986)

Bunting, Brian :Â The Rise of the South African Reich. IDAF, London, (1986)

Forman, Lionel : The South African Treason Trial. John Calder, London, (1957)

Forman, Lionel : Chapters in the History of the March to Freedom. A New Age Pamphlet, Cape Town,(1959)

IDAF with UN Centre Against Apartheid : Women Under Apartheid, In Photographs and Text. London (1981)

Joyce, Peter : The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, The chronicle of a divided society as told through South Africa's newspapers. Struik Publishers, Cape Town (1990)

Meli, Francis :Â South Africa Belongs to Us, A History of the ANC. Zimbabwe Publishing House, Harare, (1988)

Mbeki, Govan :Â The Peasants' Revolt. Penguin Africa Library, London (1964)

Muthien, Yvonne : State and Resistance in South Africa, 1939-1965. Avebury, Aldershot, (1994)

Roux, Edward : Time Longer than Rope: A History of the Black Man's Struggle for Freedom in South Africa. University of Wisconsin, (1948)

Simons, H. J. and Simons, R. E. : Class and Colour in South Africa, 1850-1950. Penguin, Harmondsworth (1969)

Weinberg, Eli :Â Portrait of a People. IDAF, London (1981)